competence

n. A term in psychology that can be understood as both an objective outcome and a subjective or phenomenological experience. In either sense, developing competence can be defined as the ongoing process of acquiring and consolidating a set of skills needed for performance in one or more life domains; it is, in its most basic form, learning. Researchers often study competence in the domains of sport, industry, academics, and the arts. However, competence is relevant to a much wider array of domains and activities, particularly with regard to development, for example, learning to ride a bike or tie one’s shoes, becoming toilet trained, or learning to self-regulate more generally. All of these activities and more fall under the auspices of competence.

In particular, psychological research on competence has been focused on the intrinsically motivating properties of this phenomenological experience. That is, researchers, such as Robert White, have found that the experience of feeling competent or effective is a rewarding one in its own right. People seem to have a natural inclination to seek out new challenges for the sake of experiencing a sense of competence - even when there are no extrinsic rewards (such as cash or prizes) to be earned or won. A prototypic illustration of how the feeling of competence can be intrinsically rewarding can be observed in children at play. When a small child works diligently at creating a castle made of sand, typically his or her only reward is the sense of satisfaction this activity brings in that moment. Many adults labor every week to complete a crossword puzzle, even when the completed puzzle is unlikely ever to be seen by another person’s eyes. Again, the motivation for this action can be understood as resulting from the intrinsic satisfaction derived from developing and exercising a set of skills: that is, from developing and experiencing competence.

On the basis of years of research conducted on both animals and humans, researchers posit that this feeling of competence represents a basic and universal psychological need. As such, the experience of competence is necessary for optimal health and well-being, and when this experience is thwarted, ill-being results. For example, the learnedhelplessness model of depression can be understood as characterizing the condition of clinical depression as resulting from a chronic lack of perceived competence, which has become generalized across domains. The need for competence is understood to be inborn or innate and thus is present in all people from the earliest stages of development onward, from all different cultures and corners of the globe. The natural inclination we have to seek out the experience of competence is understood to be adaptive in the sense that it promotes both physical and mental development.

Importantly, researchers have noted that competence-relevant behavior is not only motivated by the positive, appetitive possibility of competence but also by the negative, aversive possibility of incompetence. Although the need for competence may initially be a thoroughly appetitive motivational source that orients infants toward competence, a variety of factors, including temperament and socialization, can rechannel this naturally appetitive form of motivation toward the avoidance of incompetence (e.g., fear of failure). While potentially a powerfully motivating force, focusing on the avoidance of incompetence is understood to be a nonoptimal form of selfregulation, primarily serving a self-protective function. As such, these aversive forms of motivation often do a poor job of satisfying the underlying positively focused need for competence, which is required for continued growth and development. For instance, avoidance goals, specifically performance-avoidance goals, have been associated with various forms of self-handicapping, such as withholding effort or commitment to properly preparing, strategies that are ultimately self-destructive. Over the long term, research suggests that pursuing avoidance goals in general leads to a decrease in life satisfaction and physical health.

The experience of competence is understood to be intrinsically rewarding and is characterized by emotions such as joy, pride, and happiness. By contrast, negative competence- related outcomes or failure are characterized by emotions such as sadness, shame, and anxiety. Researchers have demonstrated that the precise nature of affective experience following positive or negative outcomes can vary as a function of approach and avoidance motivation. When people are appetitively focused on gaining competence, positive outcomes lead to joy and pride, whereas negative outcomes produce sadness and disappointment. By contrast, when people are aversively focused on avoiding incompetence, positive outcomes tend to result in relief, whereas negative outcomes result in shame and distress. To the extent that joy and pride are considered more desirable outcomes than relief, these findings provide further support for encouraging individuals to focus on approaching competence as opposed to avoiding incompetence.

In sum, competence is integral to physical and psychological functioning, and the pursuit of competence is a pervasive feature of daily life for human beings of all ages and races, regardless of gender. Competence strivings have many different forms, and one’s successes and failures in these strivings have important implications for one’s overall health and well-being.

- ACM, AJE