tolerance of ambiguity

n. The ability to consider ambiguous stimulus information in an open manner. Although this definition applies to both social and nonsocial stimulus information, the concept of tolerance of ambiguity is primarily studied in social, organizational, and clinical contexts. Intolerance of ambiguity is closely linked to psychological constructs such as closed-mindedness, need for closure, and the authoritarian personality. In contemporary psychology, tolerance of ambiguity is frequently associated with the ability to adjust to new social and cultural environments.

The basis for research on (in)tolerance of ambiguity was established by the research of Frenkel-Brunswik, whose work and thinking are closely tied to Adorno's work on the authoritarian personality. Both the authoritarian personality and the notion of tolerance of ambiguity emerged in the early 1950s in order to explain the rise and popularity of Nazi ideology. According to FrenkelBrunswik, the intolerance of ambiguity (rather than tolerance of ambiguity) played a critical role in this process. She described intolerance of ambiguity as a general personality variable with manifestations in both social and cognitive domains.

Frenkel-Brunswik described individuals with intolerance of ambiguity as especially prone to engage in black-and-white thinking, to think in terms of certainty rather than probability, and to be rigid in their thoughts even when flexibility is required. These tendencies were also observed on a social level, where intolerance of ambiguity was associated with a preference for clear role patterns between the sexes, between parents and their children, and in interpersonal interaction in general. Frenkel-Brunswik also typified individuals intolerant of ambiguity as having strong fervor with regard to upholding cultural norms, and as feeling especially disturbed when these norms are violated. Obedience to authority, discipline, obsession with morality, and conformity were also characteristics mentioned. As many of her contemporaries did, Frenkel-Brunswik traced the origins of the personality type to early childhood. Building on psychoanalysis, she argued that intolerance of ambiguity originates from an unconscious experience of emotional conflict regarding how to approach and perceive one's parents, either with hostility or with reverence.

Since Frenkel-Brunswik's introduction of the concept of intolerance of ambiguity, it has received considerable research attention, in various countries and domains of psychology. A number of attempts have been made to measure the construct adequately. These attempts have resulted in a personality approach to intolerance of ambiguity, which treats it as a stable personality trait that can be measured by means of questionnaires or projective tests. In this context, a 16-item scale developed by Budner in the mid-1960s is most commonly used. Others have taken a more basic, cognitive approach, identifying the intolerance of ambiguity by means of perceptual tasks, whereby tendencies to use simple categories to order stimulus information and unease with ambiguous stimuli are taken as indicators of greater intolerance of ambiguity.

Intolerance of ambiguity has been studied with regard to its relevance for understanding prejudice and has been applied in clinical and organizational settings. Research has provided evidence for the negative consequences of the construct in all domains, although results tend to vary across studies. In the social domain, intolerance of ambiguity has indeed been found to correlate with measures of ethnocentrism and authoritarianism. In clinical settings, intolerance of ambiguity as a personality trait was found to be associated with hysteria, obsessive behavior, and, to a lesser extent, anxiety. In organizational contexts, intolerance of ambiguity has in some studies been found to reduce job satisfaction directly, although other studies have shown that the construct only predicts reduced job satisfaction if the employee experiences role ambiguity. Further, tolerance of ambiguity has been associated with an increased tendency to seek feedback from managers. Interest in research on tolerance of ambiguity has grown considerably as a result of Hofstede's research demonstrating the relevance of the construct for understanding variations in behavior across cultures. This research has led to the insight that national cultures show variation in the extent to which members are willing to tolerate uncertainty, and this variation is argued to account for specific cultural phenomena, as well as a more general receptivity toward foreign influences including expatriate workers.

These research findings highlight the appeal of the concept of tolerance of ambiguity among a very diverse group of psychologists. It has been argued that the breadth of application of the construct may in large part account for its continuing popularity. – MD, AK