identity

n. Identity is a catchall-phrase used throughout the social sciences to refer to the way individuals understand themselves and are recognized by others. Because different disciplines use the term in different ways, it is impossible to offer a single definition that fits all uses. Psychologists differentiate among three types of identities: personal identity, collective identity, and relational identity. Personal identity refers to people's beliefs about the qualities and attributes that distinguish them from others. For example, a person might think of himself/herself as outgoing, talented, or loyal. For most people, these qualities are more often positive than negative (e.g., most people believe they have a good sense of humor, not a bad one).

Collective identities comprise various social categories, such as our occupation, religion, or cultural heritage. A person might think of herself as an accountant, as Catholic, or as being from Boston. Instead of distinguishing us from others, collective identities highlight our connectedness with those who share similar characteristics. Some of these identities are of universal importance. For example, virtually all individuals develop a gender identity, racial identity, and ethnic identity, as they come to understand what it means to be a particular type of socially defined person.

Relational identities refer to individuals who are part of our extended self-concept (e.g., my children, my wife), as well as the qualities we display when we interact with other people. For example, a person might regard himself as "playful with his children," or "tender with his spouse."

Different situations and circumstances activate personal, collective, and relational identities. One factor that influences identity salience is distinctiveness. In general, individuals think of themselves in ways that distinguish them from their immediate social surroundings. To illustrate, an American is more likely to be thinking of her national identity when she visits a foreign land than when she is in her home country. Personal identities are most accessible when we are alone or interacting with other people who are demographically similar to us, whereas relational identities tend to be activated when we are interacting with relationship partners or simply thinking about them. Even unconscious reminders can activate relational identities. You might, for example, catch a glimpse of someone who reminds you of your mother and, without knowing why, find you are thinking of yourself in terms of your relationship with her.

Identity salience also differs across cultures. Some countries, such as the United States and the countries of Western Europe, value individualism and self-reliance. These values lead people to place more importance on their personal identities than their social or relational identities. This pattern is less apparent in countries that emphasize cooperation and interdependence, such as the countries of East Asia or South America. Rather than thinking of themselves in terms that distinguish them from others, citizens of these countries highlight qualities that signal their group identities and relationships with others.

Gender differences show a different pattern. Men are more likely than women to define themselves in terms of their collective identities, but women are more likely than men to define themselves in terms of their relational identities. Socialization practices underlie these tendencies, as women are generally taught to be more attentive to the needs of other people.

For most people, identity begins to form during adolescence. Younger children have autobiographical memories and possess a self-concept, but they do not integrate these various aspects of self into a coherent identity until they face a period in development Erik Erikson called the "adolescent identity crisis." The crisis arises because many of the physical, cognitive, and emotional changes that accompany adolescence are abrupt, and this discontinuity can create instability and confusion. Adolescents must also cope with increased societal expectations, new ways of relating to their peers, and changes in the relationships they have forged with their primary caregivers. To reconcile these changes, adolescents must find a way to establish continuity between their prepubertal self and the person they have become and do so in ways that are recognized and accepted by other members of society.

Erikson believed the adolescent identity crisis was resolved when adolescents make three decisions (or identity commitments). First, they must choose a profession or settle on a career path. Second, they must establish a general worldview that includes their attitude toward religion and politics. Finally, they must define their sexual orientation and adopt age-appropriate sex-role behavior. In years past, these commitments were relatively easy to make. Prior to the industrial revolution, most adolescents worked on the family farm or served an apprenticeship that prepared them to work in the family business. They also tended to adopt their parents' religious and political beliefs and frequently allowed their parents to determine whom and when they married. This is much less true today. At least in contemporary Western societies, adolescents are free to choose their occupation, ideology, and marriage partners. Although this freedom has numerous advantages, it is not without costs. Today, adolescents must decide who they are and what they will be. In short, they must create an identity for themselves, leading to the crisis Erikson discussed.

Adolescents differ with regard to their progress in the process of making their identity commitments. Those who have successfully weathered an identity crisis and have made the occupational, ideological, and sexual commitments Erikson described are said to be identity achieved. Those who are actively working toward resolving their crisis but have yet to do so successfully are said to be in an identity moratorium. Individuals who are mired in an identity crisis and are not making any noticeable progress toward resolving it are classified as identity diffused. Finally, individuals who have made commitments in the absence of any crisis are labeled identity foreclosed. Usually, these individuals have uncritically accepted their parents' commitments, rather than struggling to forge their own identity.